"c:\\Users\\timmy_3aupohg\\anaconda3\\envs\\ai_env\\Lib\\site-packages\\tqdm\\auto.py:21: TqdmWarning: IProgress not found. Please update jupyter and ipywidgets. See https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html\n",
" from .autonotebook import tqdm as notebook_tqdm\n"
]
}
],
"source": [
"import fitz # PyMuPDF\n",
"from docx import Document\n",
"from docx2pdf import convert # Lazy import for optional dependency\n",
"You are an APA Compliance and Document Review Agent, highly specialized in ensuring strict adherence to APA guidelines as defined in the \"APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition\" by the American Psychological Association.\n",
"\n",
"Your task is to analyze the provided text or document images to identify and correct errors in the following areas:\n",
"1. **Grammatical Errors:** Identify grammatical issues, focusing on APA-specific grammar requirements (e.g., third-person writing, formal tone, active voice).\n",
"2. **Document Structure Errors:** Ensure the document adheres to APA formatting requirements, including title page layout, abstract structure, headings, and reference list organization.\n",
"3. **Referencing Errors:** Detect and correct issues with references, such as missing references, improper formatting, or inconsistencies in style.\n",
"4. **Citation Errors:** Identify problems with in-text citations, such as missing elements, improper punctuation, or placement errors.\n",
"\n",
"For each page/image, provide a detailed analysis and return a structured dictionary with the following format:\n",
"\n",
"{\n",
" \"Page/Image\": <Page number or Image identifier>,\n",
" \"Errors\": [\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": <Line number(s) where the error occurs>,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"<Exact text of the flawed element>\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"<Detailed explanation of why it is incorrect, referencing specific pages and sections from the APA 7th Edition Manual>\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"<The correct or improved version of the text>\"\n",
" },\n",
" ...\n",
" ],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"<A brief summary stating whether the page/image meets APA standards or the total number of errors detected.>\"\n",
"}\n",
"\n",
"**Additional Instructions:**\n",
"1. For grammar, include both generic grammatical errors and APA-specific grammar violations. Cite the relevant page and section for APA grammar standards.\n",
"2. For document structure, verify that all APA-required sections are present and correctly formatted. Reference the relevant section (e.g., \"Running Head: APA 7th Edition, p. 37\").\n",
"3. For citations and references, explicitly state the page number and section of the \"APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition\" that supports your findings.\n",
"4. Be strict and exhaustive in your evaluation, ensuring no potential flaws are overlooked.\n",
"5. Include specific and detailed descriptions that allow the user to locate the correction in the APA manual.\n",
"6. If no errors are found on a page/image, include a summary confirming adherence to APA standards and set \"Errors\" to an empty list.\n",
"\n",
"Your response must follow this structured format and be concise, well-structured, and formatted in JSON for easy parsing.\n",
"\n",
"\"\"\""
]
},
{
"cell_type": "code",
"execution_count": 28,
"metadata": {},
"outputs": [
{
"name": "stdout",
"output_type": "stream",
"text": [
"Choice(finish_reason='stop', index=0, logprobs=None, message=ChatCompletionMessage(content='```json\\n{\\n \"Page/Image\": 1,\\n \"Errors\": [\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"1\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1)\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"In APA format, abbreviations such as \\'RQ\\' should be defined at first use unless well-known. Additionally, the use of \\'#\\' should be avoided for \\'number\\' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 6.23, p. 178).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Part 1 - Research Question (RQ) and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment 1 (part 1)\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"11-12\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"This sentence is phrased as a question, which is improper for a null hypothesis statement. It should be a declarative sentence (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.2, p. 31).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”).\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"17\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The text appears to be incomplete or redundant. Clarification needed to ensure accurate variable description (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.6, p. 44).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"relationship between vehicle weight and miles per gallon\"\\n }\\n ],\\n \"Summary\": \"The first page contains several errors related to APA grammar and structure, totaling 3 errors identified.\"\\n}\\n{\\n \"Page/Image\": 2,\\n \"Errors\": [\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"4\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"proximity normally distributed\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The phrase \\'proximity normally distributed\\' appears to be a typographical error. Should be \\'approximately normally distributed\\' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.16, p. 102).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"approximately normally distributed\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"22\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"signification relationship\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The word \\'signification\\' is incorrect. The correct word is \\'significant\\' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.02, p. 100).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"significant relationship\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"23\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"dependant variable\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The word \\'dependant\\' is misspelled. The correct spelling is \\'dependent\\' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.11, p. 102).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"dependent variable\"\\n }\\n ],\\n \"Summary\": \"The second page contains several typographical and grammatical errors, totaling 3 errors identified.\"\\n}\\n{\\n \"Page/Image\": 3,\\n \"Errors\": [\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"1\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"Linear regression is general method\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The article \\'a\\' is missing before \\'general method\\'. Incorrect article use (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.34, p. 113).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Linear regression is a general method\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": \"9\",\\n \"Error Text\": \"instruction (part 4).\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"There is an informal reference to an assignment part. Should be clarified for formal presentation (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.7, p. 45).\",\\n \
" \"Error Text\": \"Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1)\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"In APA format, abbreviations such as 'RQ' should be defined at first use unless well-known. Additionally, the use of '#' should be avoided for 'number' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 6.23, p. 178).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Part 1 - Research Question (RQ) and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment 1 (part 1)\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": \"11-12\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"This sentence is phrased as a question, which is improper for a null hypothesis statement. It should be a declarative sentence (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.2, p. 31).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”).\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": \"17\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The text appears to be incomplete or redundant. Clarification needed to ensure accurate variable description (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.6, p. 44).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"relationship between vehicle weight and miles per gallon\"\n",
" }\n",
" ],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The first page contains several errors related to APA grammar and structure, totaling 3 errors identified.\"\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The phrase 'proximity normally distributed' appears to be a typographical error. Should be 'approximately normally distributed' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.16, p. 102).\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The word 'signification' is incorrect. The correct word is 'significant' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.02, p. 100).\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The word 'dependant' is misspelled. The correct spelling is 'dependent' (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.11, p. 102).\",\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The second page contains several typographical and grammatical errors, totaling 3 errors identified.\"\n",
"}\n",
"{\n",
" \"Page/Image\": 3,\n",
" \"Errors\": [\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": \"1\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Linear regression is general method\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The article 'a' is missing before 'general method'. Incorrect article use (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 4.34, p. 113).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Linear regression is a general method\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": \"9\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"instruction (part 4).\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"There is an informal reference to an assignment part. Should be clarified for formal presentation (APA Manual, 7th ed., Section 2.7, p. 45).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"instruction from Part 4.\"\n",
" }\n",
" ],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The third page contains a few grammatical and style errors, totaling 2 errors identified.\"\n",
"}\n",
"{\n",
" \"Page/Image\": 4,\n",
" \"Errors\": [],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The fourth page adheres to APA standards with no errors detected.\"\n",
"}\n",
"{\n",
" \"Page/Image\": 5,\n",
" \"Errors\": [],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The fifth page adheres to APA standards with no errors detected.\"\n",
"}\n",
"{\n",
" \"Page/Image\": 6,\n",
" \"Errors\": [],\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The sixth page provides references properly in APA format and adheres to APA standards with no errors detected.\"\n",
"}\n",
"```\n"
]
}
],
"source": [
"# Extract the content from the response object\n",
"Choice(finish_reason='stop', index=0, logprobs=None, message=ChatCompletionMessage(content='```json\\n{\\n \"Page/Image\": \"Page 1\",\\n \"Errors\": [\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 1,\\n \"Error Text\": \"Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1),\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The title should be concise and not include references to assignments or instructions. According to APA Manual, titles should be descriptive and succinct (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.4, p. 30).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Research Questions and Hypotheses\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 5,\\n \"Error Text\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The null hypothesis should be a statement, not a question. APA guidelines specify that research questions and hypotheses should be direct and declarative (APA 7th Edition, Section 3.4, p. 133).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight and miles per gallon (MPG).\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 11,\\n \"Error Text\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between the weight and MPG. We will assess the relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The research hypothesis should not include first-person pronouns. APA recommends using third-person or passive voice to maintain formality (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.16, p. 120).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between weight and MPG. The relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother will be assessed.\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 17,\\n \"Error Text\": \"Interval Variable\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"This heading needs to follow APA style for heading levels. This appears to be a Level 2 or 3 heading, which should be in title case and bold (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, pp. 47-48).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Interval Variable\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 19,\\n \"Error Text\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables.\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"The description needs to be clearer and correctly annotated if it\\'s from a source, such as (Author, Year, p. page number) for direct quotations (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.25, p. 273).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables (Author, Year, p. Page Number).\"\\n },\\n {\\n \"Line Number(s)\": 23,\\n \"Error Text\": \"(Blackboard, n.d.; Salkind & Frey, 2020).\",\\n \"Description of the Error\": \"In-text citations should include proper punctuation, including the correct format for multiple sources (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.12, p. 263).\",\\n \"Suggested Correction\": \"(Blackboard, n.d.; Salkind & Frey, 2020).\"\\n }\\n ],\\n \"Summary\": \"The page contains formatting and grammatical issues, mostly related to structure, hypotheses phrasing, and citation format. Total errors detected: 6.\"\\n}\\n```', refusal=None, role='assistant', audio=None, function_call=None, tool_calls=None))\n"
" \"Error Text\": \"Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1),\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The title should be concise and not include references to assignments or instructions. According to APA Manual, titles should be descriptive and succinct (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.4, p. 30).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Research Questions and Hypotheses\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 5,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The null hypothesis should be a statement, not a question. APA guidelines specify that research questions and hypotheses should be direct and declarative (APA 7th Edition, Section 3.4, p. 133).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight and miles per gallon (MPG).\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 11,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between the weight and MPG. We will assess the relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The research hypothesis should not include first-person pronouns. APA recommends using third-person or passive voice to maintain formality (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.16, p. 120).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between weight and MPG. The relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother will be assessed.\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 17,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Interval Variable\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"This heading needs to follow APA style for heading levels. This appears to be a Level 2 or 3 heading, which should be in title case and bold (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, pp. 47-48).\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables.\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The description needs to be clearer and correctly annotated if it's from a source, such as (Author, Year, p. page number) for direct quotations (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.25, p. 273).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables (Author, Year, p. Page Number).\"\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"In-text citations should include proper punctuation, including the correct format for multiple sources (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.12, p. 263).\",\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The page contains formatting and grammatical issues, mostly related to structure, hypotheses phrasing, and citation format. Total errors detected: 6.\"\n",
"}\n",
"```\n"
]
}
],
"source": [
"# Extract the content from the response object\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1),\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The title should be concise and not include references to assignments or instructions. According to APA Manual, titles should be descriptive and succinct (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.4, p. 30).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Research Questions and Hypotheses\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 5,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The null hypothesis should be a statement, not a question. APA guidelines specify that research questions and hypotheses should be direct and declarative (APA 7th Edition, Section 3.4, p. 133).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight and miles per gallon (MPG).\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 11,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between the weight and MPG. We will assess the relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The research hypothesis should not include first-person pronouns. APA recommends using third-person or passive voice to maintain formality (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.16, p. 120).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Among the population, there is a relationship between weight and MPG. The relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother will be assessed.\"\n",
" },\n",
" {\n",
" \"Line Number(s)\": 17,\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Interval Variable\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"This heading needs to follow APA style for heading levels. This appears to be a Level 2 or 3 heading, which should be in title case and bold (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, pp. 47-48).\",\n",
" \"Error Text\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables.\",\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"The description needs to be clearer and correctly annotated if it's from a source, such as (Author, Year, p. page number) for direct quotations (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.25, p. 273).\",\n",
" \"Suggested Correction\": \"Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables (Author, Year, p. Page Number).\"\n",
" \"Description of the Error\": \"In-text citations should include proper punctuation, including the correct format for multiple sources (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.12, p. 263).\",\n",
" \"Summary\": \"The page contains formatting and grammatical issues, mostly related to structure, hypotheses phrasing, and citation format. Total errors detected: 6.\"\n",
"}\n",
"\n"
]
}
],
"source": [
"print(response_content[7:-3])"
]
},
{
"cell_type": "code",
"execution_count": 40,
"metadata": {},
"outputs": [
{
"data": {
"text/plain": [
"[{'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Part 1 - RQ and hypotheses, as we practiced in Assignment #1 (part 1),',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'The title should be concise and not include references to assignments or instructions. According to APA Manual, titles should be descriptive and succinct (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.4, p. 30).',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Research Questions and Hypotheses'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 5,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight (“weight”) and miles per gallon (“MPG”)?',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'The null hypothesis should be a statement, not a question. APA guidelines specify that research questions and hypotheses should be direct and declarative (APA 7th Edition, Section 3.4, p. 133).',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Among this population, there is no relationship between the vehicle weight and miles per gallon (MPG).'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 11,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Among the population, there is a relationship between the weight and MPG. We will assess the relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'The research hypothesis should not include first-person pronouns. APA recommends using third-person or passive voice to maintain formality (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.16, p. 120).',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Among the population, there is a relationship between weight and MPG. The relationship between the years of school completed and the years of school completed by the mother will be assessed.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 17,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Interval Variable',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'This heading needs to follow APA style for heading levels. This appears to be a Level 2 or 3 heading, which should be in title case and bold (APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, pp. 47-48).',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"The description needs to be clearer and correctly annotated if it's from a source, such as (Author, Year, p. page number) for direct quotations (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.25, p. 273).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Weight and MPG are interval, quantitative variables (Author, Year, p. Page Number).'},\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'In-text citations should include proper punctuation, including the correct format for multiple sources (APA 7th Edition, Section 8.12, p. 263).',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'There is no need to put common terms in quotation marks unless a term is being introduced or defined. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 159.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'weight'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': '8',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(“MPG”)?',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Avoid using quotation marks for acronyms unless introducing or defining. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 159.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'MPG?'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': '12',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Research hypothesis',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Inconsistent heading style. The heading should be bold according to APA style for Level 2 headings. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 48.',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(Variables and Hypotheses. n.d.)',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Incomplete citation. Author or source missing for clarity and proper attribution. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 253.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': '(Author, n.d., Variables and Hypotheses)'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': '32',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31)',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Citation style should not include the period after the citation if it is part of a sentence. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 270.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31'},\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"Same author listed as 'n.d.' twice in parentheses without differentiation and missing period. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 263.\",\n",
" 'Summary': 'Page 1 does not meet APA standards. A total of 7 errors were detected regarding citation format, inconsistent heading styles, improper use of quotation marks, and incomplete citations.',\n",
" 'reference_page': {'page_number': 251,\n",
" 'content': 'Do not use double quotation marks in the following cases: to highlight a key term or phrase (e.g., around a term for which you are going to provide a definition); instead, use italics (see Section 6.22).'},\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Do not use double quotation marks in the following cases: to highlight a key term or phrase (e.g., around a term for which you are going to provide a definition); instead, use italics (see Section 6.22).',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"Quotation marks should not be used around common terms like 'weight' unless introducing or defining them. Instead, use italics for emphasis if necessary, according to APA 7th Edition guidelines.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'weight'},\n",
" {'Page/Image': 'Image 2',\n",
" 'Errors': [{'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'We will assume that they are proximity normally distributed.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"The word 'proximity' is incorrect in this context. It should be 'approximately.' According to APA guidelines, clarity and accuracy in scientific writing are crucial (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'We will assume that they are approximately normally distributed.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 12,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'a straight-line through',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"Incorrect use of a hyphen. In this context, 'straight line' should not be hyphenated. Compound adjectives are hyphenated only when they precede the noun they modify (APA 7th Edition, Section 6.12).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'a straight line through'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 30,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'signification relationship',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"The word 'signification' is a typo and should be 'significant.' Accuracy in terminology is essential for clear communication (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\",\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"The word 'dependant' is incorrectly spelled. It should be 'dependent.' Correct spelling is necessary for professional writing (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\",\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"According to APA guidelines, quotation marks should only be used when introducing or defining a term. Since 'weight' is a common term and not being introduced or defined in this context, the quotation marks should be removed.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'weight'},\n",
" {'Page/Image': 'Image 3',\n",
" 'Errors': [{'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Linear regression is general method for estimating association...',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"Missing article 'a' before 'general method.' According to APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23, articles should be used appropriately.\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Linear regression is a general method for estimating association...'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'It is a prediction on one variable from another variable.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"Use of 'on' instead of 'of'. As per APA, accurate prepositions should be used (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'It is a prediction of one variable from another variable.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 5,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Part4 - and then the regression findings using the template...',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Incorrect section heading format. According to APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, headings should be concise and formatted appropriately, with proper punctuation.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Part 4: Then, present the regression findings using the template...'},\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"Superscript 'b' is used but not explained in the table note. Each superscript must be defined (APA 7th Edition, Section 7.14).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': \"Add a note explaining superscript 'b' or remove if unnecessary.\"}],\n",
" 'Summary': 'The page contains 4 errors related to grammatical issues, heading formatting, and table notation errors. Corrections required to meet APA 7th Edition standards.'},\n",
" {'Page/Image': 'Image 4',\n",
" 'Errors': [{'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'A simple linear regession was calculated to predict MPG based on weight of the vehicle.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"There is a spelling error in the word 'regession'. According to APA 7th Edition, correct spelling is important for professionalism and clarity (APA Manual, p. 112).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'A simple linear regression was calculated to predict MPG based on the weight of the vehicle.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Partcipants’ predicted weight is equal to _35.882+.004_(MPG) weight when MPG is measured in lbs.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"The word 'Partcipants’' is misspelled. The correct spelling is important for readability (APA Manual, p. 112). Also, ensure clarity in mathematical expressions as per APA guidelines (APA Manual, p. 187).\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Participants’ predicted weight is equal to 35.882 + 0.004 × (MPG) when MPG is measured in lbs.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Weight decreased -.004 for each gallon of MPG.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'The format for reporting statistics should be clear and in accordance with APA style (APA Manual, p. 89). The negative sign should be adjacent to the numeral without a space.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Weight decreased by 0.004 lbs for each additional mile per gallon.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': 4,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'We have been asked to investigate the degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Use of first-person pronouns is discouraged in APA style for maintaining objectivity and formality (APA Manual, p. 120).',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'This study investigated the degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon.'}],\n",
" 'Summary': 'The page contains grammatical and style errors that do not fully comply with APA standards. Total number of errors detected: 4.'},\n",
" {'Page/Image': 'Image 5',\n",
" 'Errors': [{'Line Number(s)': '3',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Sage Publications, Inc.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': \"According to the APA 7th Edition Manual (p. 295), publishers' names should not include words like 'Publishers', 'Co.', 'Inc.', etc. unless they are a part of the main title of the publisher.\",\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Sage'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': '5',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Variables and Hypotheses. (n.d.). Variables and hypotheses [PDF]',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Title in the reference list should be in sentence case and not italicized or enclosed in brackets. APA 7th Edition Manual section 9.19 (p. 291) specifies that document type (e.g., PDF) should not be included.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Variables and hypotheses.'},\n",
" {'Line Number(s)': '7',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Blackboard. (n.d.). Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.',\n",
" 'Description of the Error': 'Titles should be in sentence case. According to the APA 7th Edition Manual section 9.19 (p. 291), only the first word of a title and subtitle, proper nouns, and acronyms should be capitalized.',\n",
" 'Suggested Correction': 'Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.'}],\n",
" 'Summary': 'The page contains three errors related to publisher name formatting, document type inclusion, and title casing. Corrections are needed as specified.'}]"
]
},
"execution_count": 38,
"metadata": {},
"output_type": "execute_result"
}
],
"source": [
"doc_errors"
]
},
{
"cell_type": "code",
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"metadata": {},
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"source": [
"def extract_errors_minimal(doc_errors):\n",
" \"\"\"\n",
" Extracts individual errors from the document errors list and converts \n",
" them into a flat list of dictionaries with essential details only.\n",
"\n",
" Args:\n",
" - doc_errors (list): A list of dictionaries representing document pages with errors.\n",
"\n",
" Returns:\n",
" - list: A flat list of dictionaries, each representing an individual error \n",
" with minimal details (Doc Page, Line Number(s), Error Text).\n",
"['There is no need to put common terms in quotation marks unless a term is being introduced or defined. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 159.', 'Avoid using quotation marks for acronyms unless introducing or defining. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 159.', 'Inconsistent heading style. The heading should be bold according to APA style for Level 2 headings. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 48.', 'Headings should follow a consistent style, bold and centered for Level 1. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 48.', 'Incomplete citation. Author or source missing for clarity and proper attribution. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 253.', 'Citation style should not include the period after the citation if it is part of a sentence. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 270.', \"Same author listed as 'n.d.' twice in parentheses without differentiation and missing period. Reference: APA 7th Edition, p. 263.\", \"The word 'proximity' is incorrect in this context. It should be 'approximately.' According to APA guidelines, clarity and accuracy in scientific writing are crucial (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\", \"Incorrect use of a hyphen. In this context, 'straight line' should not be hyphenated. Compound adjectives are hyphenated only when they precede the noun they modify (APA 7th Edition, Section 6.12).\", \"The word 'signification' is a typo and should be 'significant.' Accuracy in terminology is essential for clear communication (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\", \"The word 'dependant' is incorrectly spelled. It should be 'dependent.' Correct spelling is necessary for professional writing (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.10).\", \"Missing article 'a' before 'general method.' According to APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23, articles should be used appropriately.\", \"Use of 'on' instead of 'of'. As per APA, accurate prepositions should be used (APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23).\", 'Incorrect section heading format. According to APA 7th Edition, Section 2.27, headings should be concise and formatted appropriately, with proper punctuation.', \"Superscript 'b' is used but not explained in the table note. Each superscript must be defined (APA 7th Edition, Section 7.14).\", \"There is a spelling error in the word 'regession'. According to APA 7th Edition, correct spelling is important for professionalism and clarity (APA Manual, p. 112).\", \"The word 'Partcipants’' is misspelled. The correct spelling is important for readability (APA Manual, p. 112). Also, ensure clarity in mathematical expressions as per APA guidelines (APA Manual, p. 187).\", 'The format for reporting statistics should be clear and in accordance with APA style (APA Manual, p. 89). The negative sign should be adjacent to the numeral without a space.', 'Use of first-person pronouns is discouraged in APA style for maintaining objectivity and formality (APA Manual, p. 120).', \"According to the APA 7th Edition Manual (p. 295), publishers' names should not include words like 'Publishers', 'Co.', 'Inc.', etc. unless they are a part of the main title of the publisher.\", 'Title in the reference list should be in sentence case and not italicized or enclosed in brackets. APA 7th Edition Manual section 9.19 (p. 291) specifies that document type (e.g., PDF) should not be included.', 'Titles should be in sentence case. According to the APA 7th Edition Manual section 9.19 (p. 291), only the first word of a title and subtitle, proper nouns, and acronyms should be capitalized.']\n"
"['(“weight”)', '(“MPG”)?', 'Research hypothesis', 'Interval Variable', '(Variables and Hypotheses. n.d.)', '(Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31)', '(Blackboard, n.d.; Salkind & Frey, 2020)', 'We will assume that they are proximity normally distributed.', 'a straight-line through', 'signification relationship', 'dependant variable', 'Linear regression is general method for estimating association...', 'It is a prediction on one variable from another variable.', 'Part4 - and then the regression findings using the template...', 'Weightb', 'A simple linear regession was calculated to predict MPG based on weight of the vehicle.', 'Partcipants’ predicted weight is equal to _35.882+.004_(MPG) weight when MPG is measured in lbs.', 'Weight decreased -.004 for each gallon of MPG.', 'We have been asked to investigate the degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon.', 'Sage Publications, Inc.', 'Variables and Hypotheses. (n.d.). Variables and hypotheses [PDF]', 'Blackboard. (n.d.). Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.']\n"
" 'To quote material that already uses quotation marks for some other purpose (e.g., to enclose a phrase such as a coined expression or linguistic example; see Section 6.7), it may be necessary to change double quotation marks to single or vice versa in your paper depending on the number of words you are quoting.'),\n",
" (20,\n",
" 'Formatting of linguistic examples has changed; quotation marks are now used around examples, rather than italics, to promote accessibility.'),\n",
" (391,\n",
" 'In specific circumstances, authors may wish to duplicate their previously used words without quotation marks or citation (e.g., in describing the details of an instrument or an analytic approach), feeling that extensive self- referencing is undesirable or awkward and that rewording may lead to inaccuracies. When the duplicated material is limited in scope, this approach is permissible.'),\n",
" (251,\n",
" 'to set off the title of a periodical article or book chapter when the title is used in the text or in a copyright attribution (do not use quotation marks around the article or book chapter title in the reference list entry)'),\n",
" (251, 'Do not use double quotation marks in the following cases:'),\n",
" (251,\n",
" 'to highlight a key term or phrase (e.g., around a term for which you are going to provide a definition); instead, use italics (see Section 6.22)')],\n",
" [(257,\n",
" 'Spelling in APA Style papers should conform to the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com). The spellings psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (https://dictionary.apa.org). If a word appears differently in these two dictionaries, follow the spelling in the APA Dictionary of Psychology. If a word is not in either of these dictionaries, consult an unabridged edition of Webster’s dictionary (see https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com). If the dictionary offers a choice of spellings, select one and use it consistently throughout your paper. of'),\n",
" (212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (257, 'Spelling'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'The spellings of terms related to technology evolve over time. Use the following spellings for some common technology words in APA Style papers:'),\n",
" (257, '6.11 Preferred Spelling'),\n",
" (258,\n",
" 'Compound words—words composed of two or more words—take many forms; they may be written as (a) two separate words (open), (b) one hyphenated word, or (c) one solid word. Compound words are often introduced into the language as separate or hyphenated words; as they become more commonplace, they tend to fuse into a solid word. For example, “data base” has become “database,” and “e-mail” has become “email.” The dictionary is an excellent guide for choosing the proper form: When a compound appears in the dictionary, its usage is established, and it is considered a permanent compound (e.g., “health care,” “self-esteem,” “caregiver”). In general, follow the hyphenation shown in the dictionary for permanent compounds (e.g., write “health care” without a hyphen, even in a phrase like “health care setting”); adjust hyphenation only to prevent misreading. Dictionaries do not always agree on the way a compound should be written (open, hyphenated, or solid); Section 6.11 specifies the dictionaries to use for APA Style papers.'),\n",
" (436, '9.9 Spelling and Capitalization of Author Names'),\n",
" (410,\n",
" 'In the rare case that two different groups abbreviate to the same form (e.g., both the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association abbreviate to “APA”) and you cite both groups in your paper, spell out each name every time to avoid confusion.'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'The plural forms of some words of Latin or Greek origin can be troublesome (particularly those that end in the letter “a”). A list of preferred spellings of some of the more common ones follows.'),\n",
" (640, 'spelling and capitalization, 287 (9.9)')],\n",
" [(610,\n",
" 'superscripts correspond to table notes? Are all table notes correct?'),\n",
" (318,\n",
" 'Specific Note. A specific note refers to a particular column, row, or cell. Specific notes are indicated by superscript lowercase letters (e.g., a, b, c). Do not add specific notes to a table title; instead, use a general note. Within each table that has specific notes, order the superscripts from left to right and from top to bottom, starting at the top left and beginning with the letter “a” (see, e.g., Tables 7.2, 7.10, and 7.15 in Section 7.21). The corresponding specific note below the table begins with the same superscript letter. Place a superscript space before the superscript letter in the table body (e.g., Group a). Place a superscript space after the superscript letter in the specific note. This space prevents specific notes from getting caught by spell-check and improves readability.'),\n",
" (320,\n",
" 'Use standard abbreviations and symbols for all statistics (e.g., M, SD, SE, F, df, n, p), Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2), and units of measurement (see Tables 6.4–6.5) used in tables without defining them in a note. This guidance also applies to statistics, Greek letters, and units of measurement appearing in figures (see Section 7.28 for more on figure notes). The abbreviation “no.” (for “number”) and the symbol “%” (for “percent”) may also be used without providing a definition. Other abbreviations used in a table or figure should be defined in the table or figure title, body, or note, even if the abbreviations are also defined in the paper (see Sections 6.25 and 6.44). Except where it makes sense to group similar abbreviations, define the abbreviations in the order that they appear in the table, starting at the top left and moving left to right, top to bottom.'),\n",
" (320, '7.15 Standard Abbreviations in Tables and Figures'),\n",
" (314,\n",
" 'Abbreviations may also be defined in a general note to the table (see Section 7.14). Do not use a specific note to clarify an element of the title.'),\n",
" (358,\n",
" 'Position any superscripts for specific notes near the element being identified. It is preferable to report exact p values; however, if statistically significant values are marked with asterisks or daggers in the figure, explain them in a probability note (see Section 7.14). For guidelines on formatting figure notes, see Section 7.14.'),\n",
" (298,\n",
" \"Align signs and symbols carefully. Use the subscript and superscript functions of your word-processing program. In most cases, type subscripts first and then superscripts (xa 2). However, place a subscript or superscript such as the symbol for prime right next to its letter or symbol (x'a). Because APA prefers to align subscripts and superscripts one under the other (“stacking”) for ease of reading instead of setting one to the right of the other (“staggering”), if you are publishing an article that includes statistics in an APA journal, your subscripts and superscripts will be stacked when they are typeset. If subscripts and superscripts should not be stacked, indicate this in a cover letter or in the manuscript.\"),\n",
" (311,\n",
" 'number: The table number (e.g., Table 1) appears above the table in bold font (see Section 7.10).'),\n",
" (272,\n",
" 'nonstatistical subscripts to statistical symbols or mathematical expressions'),\n",
" (291,\n",
" 'Do not define symbols or abbreviations that represent statistics (e.g., M, SD, F, t, df, p, N, n, OR, r) or any abbreviations or symbols composed of Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2) in Table 6.5.')],\n",
" [(442,\n",
" 'The date also appears as “n.d.” in the corresponding in-text citation.'),\n",
" (465,\n",
" 'The letter format for references with no date is “n.d.-a,” “n.d.-b.”'),\n",
" 'Sometimes the publication date of a work is unknown or cannot be determined. For works with no date, write “n.d.” (which stands for “no date”) in parentheses. Put a period after the “n” and after the “d” with no space between the letters.'),\n",
" (700, 'in APA references generally, 282 (9.3)'),\n",
" (502,\n",
" 'Parenthetical citations: (American Psychological Association, n.d.; Merriam-Webster, n.d.) Narrative citations: American Psychological Association (n.d.) and Merriam-Webster (n.d.)'),\n",
" (549,\n",
" 'Parenthetical citations: (Boddy et al., n.d.; National Nurses United, n.d.)'),\n",
" (549,\n",
" 'Narrative citations: Boddy et al. (n.d.) and National Nurses United (n.d.)'),\n",
" (432, '9.5 Punctuation Within Reference List Entries'),\n",
" (402,\n",
" 'In rare cases, the author and date might both appear in the narrative. In this case, do not use parentheses.')],\n",
" [(138,\n",
" 'Methodological Articles. The abstract for a methodological article (see Section 1.8) should describe the following:'),\n",
" (34, '1.8 Methodological Articles'),\n",
" (34,\n",
" 'Methodological articles provide sufficient detail for researchers to assess the applicability of the methodology and its feasibility for the type of research problem it is designed to study. Further, these articles allow readers to compare proposed methods with those in current use. In methodological articles, highly technical materials (e.g., derivations, proofs, data generation, computer code, extensive details of simulations) should be presented in appendices or as supplemental materials to improve overall article readability. When having detailed information (e.g., parameters used in a simulation) is necessary for readers to understand the major points being made, those details should be presented in the text of the article.'),\n",
" (34,\n",
" 'Methodological articles present new approaches to research or practice, modifications of existing methods, or discussions of quantitative and/or qualitative data analysis. These articles use empirical data (quantitative, qualitative, or both) only as a means to illustrate an approach to research. Some use simulated data to demonstrate how methods work under varying conditions (e.g., different sample sizes, number of variables, level of nonnormality, size of coefficients).'),\n",
" (147,\n",
" 'The Method section of a paper provides most of the information that readers need to fully comprehend what was done in the execution of an empirical study. This section provides information that allows readers to understand the research being reported and that is essential for replication of the study, although the concept of replication may depend on the nature of the study. The basic information needed to understand the results should (as a rule) appear in the main article, whereas other methodological information (e.g., detailed descriptions of procedures) may appear in supplemental materials. Readability of the resulting paper must be part of the decision about where material is ultimately located. Details of what content needs to be presented in the Method section of a quantitative article are presented in Table 3.1 and must be used in conjunction with JARS–Quant Tables 2 to 9 on the JARS website (https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/quantitative).'),\n",
" (580,\n",
" 'Method section: Provide enough information to allow readers to understand how the data were collected and evaluated (following the journal article reporting standards in Chapter 3); full details about every step or the rationale behind it are unnecessary. Instead, refer readers to previous works that informed the current study’s methods or to supplemental materials.'),\n",
" (135,\n",
" 'Many aspects of the scientific process are common across quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches. This section reviews reporting standards that have considerable overlap for the two initial elements of journal articles—the abstract and the introduction. We present the common reporting standards for the abstract and introduction as well as some distinctive features for each approach. For descriptions of and formatting guidelines for the title, byline and institutional affiliation, author note, running head, abstract, keywords, text (the body of a paper), reference list, footnotes, appendices, and supplemental materials, see Chapter 2 (Sections 2.4–2.15).'),\n",
" (141,\n",
" 'Whereas standards for reporting information in the abstract and introduction of a paper are common to all kinds of research (see Sections 3.3–3.4), there are specific reporting standards for quantitative research articles, including the Method, Results, and Discussion sections (see Sections 3.6–3.8). Note that this is a conceptual separation, but in practice, the information specified in these three sets of reporting standards may be intermixed in several sections of the paper to optimize readability. Standards specific to qualitative and mixed methods research are presented in Sections 3.13 to 3.17 and 3.18, respectively.'),\n",
" (410, 'The American Psychological Association (APA, 2017) described . . .'),\n",
" (174,\n",
" 'Methodological Integrity. Highlight procedures that support methodological integrity throughout the paper or summarize central points in a separate section of the Method section when elaboration or emphasis would be helpful (for more on methodological integrity, see Levitt et al., 2017, and the glossary on the JARS website at https://apastyle.apa.org/jars/glossary). Demonstrate that the claims made from the analysis are warranted. Highlight key features of methodological integrity, as follows:')],\n",
" [(192,\n",
" 'Likewise, avoid colloquialisms, which are informal expressions used in everyday speech and writing (e.g., “to write up” instead of “to report,” “gonna” instead of “going to”). These expressions often diffuse meaning, as in the case of approximations of quantity; “quite a large part,” “practically all,” and “very few” are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. Approximations weaken statements, especially those describing empirical observations. Instead, use precise, scholarly language.'),\n",
" (190, 'in close proximity to'),\n",
" (212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (215,\n",
" 'Precision is essential in scholarly writing; when you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias or prejudicial connotations. Bias, like inaccurate or unclear language, can be a form of imprecision. For example, using “man” to refer to all human beings is not as accurate or inclusive as using the terms “individuals,” “people,” or “persons.”'),\n",
" (14,\n",
" 'Excellence in writing is critical for success in many academic and professional pursuits. APA Style is a set of guidelines for clear and precise scholarly communication that helps authors, both new and experienced, achieve excellence in writing. It is used by millions of people around the world in psychology and also in fields ranging from nursing to social work, communications to education, business to engineering, and other disciplines for the preparation of manuscripts for publication as well as for writing student papers, dissertations, and theses. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the authoritative resource for APA Style, and we are proud to deliver its seventh edition.'),\n",
" (204,\n",
" 'Although some writers use “which” for both restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses, APA Style reserves “which” for nonrestrictive clauses and “that” for restrictive clauses. Consistent use of “that” for restrictive clauses and “which” for nonrestrictive clauses will help make your writing clear and precise.'),\n",
" (213,\n",
" 'Authors must strive to use language that is free of bias, meaning the implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups they are writing about. As an organization, APA is committed to both the advancement of science and the fair treatment of individuals and groups. These principles require that authors and students who use APA Style avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes in their writing. It is unacceptable to use constructions that might imply prejudicial beliefs or perpetuate biased assumptions against persons on the basis of age, disability, gender, participation in research, racial or ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, or some combination of these or other personal factors (e.g., marital status, immigration status, religion). Instead, authors should use affirming and inclusive language.'),\n",
" (277,\n",
" 'Metrication. APA uses the metric system in its journals. If you used instruments that record measurements in nonmetric units, report the nonmetric units followed by the established metric equivalents in parentheses.'),\n",
" (188,\n",
" 'Where possible, tighten language to eliminate wordiness, redundancy (see Section 4.5), evasiveness, overuse of the passive voice, circumlocution, and clumsy prose. Shorten or eliminate overly detailed descriptions of equipment or apparatus, participants, or procedures (beyond those called for in journal article reporting standards; see Chapter 3); elaborations of the obvious; and irrelevant observations or asides. Information that would cause the paper to be too long and is not essential to understanding the research—but would nonetheless be helpful to a subset of readers—may be placed, when appropriate, in supplemental materials (see Section 2.15).'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'Spelling in APA Style papers should conform to the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com). The spellings psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (https://dictionary.apa.org). If a word appears differently in these two dictionaries, follow the spelling in the APA Dictionary of Psychology. If a word is not in either of these dictionaries, consult an unabridged edition of Webster’s dictionary (see https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com). If the dictionary offers a choice of spellings, select one and use it consistently throughout your paper. of')],\n",
" [(410, '(American Psychological Association [APA], 2017)'),\n",
" (410, 'The American Psychological Association (APA, 2017) described . . .'),\n",
" (23, 'APA Style Online'),\n",
" (213,\n",
" 'Authors must strive to use language that is free of bias, meaning the implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups they are writing about. As an organization, APA is committed to both the advancement of science and the fair treatment of individuals and groups. These principles require that authors and students who use APA Style avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes in their writing. It is unacceptable to use constructions that might imply prejudicial beliefs or perpetuate biased assumptions against persons on the basis of age, disability, gender, participation in research, racial or ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, or some combination of these or other personal factors (e.g., marital status, immigration status, religion). Instead, authors should use affirming and inclusive language.'),\n",
" (543, 'https://twitter.com/APA_Style'),\n",
" (599, 'writing the copyright attribution in APA Style.'),\n",
" (212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (16, 'APA Style for Students'),\n",
" (196, 'Table 4.1 Recommended Verb Tenses in APA Style Papers')],\n",
" [(93,\n",
" 'There are five possible levels of heading in APA Style (see Section 2.27), and all topics of equal importance should have the same level of heading. For example, in a multiexperiment paper, the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 1 should be the same level as the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 2, with parallel wording. In a single-experiment paper, the Method, Results, and Discussion sections should all have the same heading level. Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section, just like in an outline; use at least two subsection headings within a section, or use none (e.g., in an outline, a section numbered with a Roman numeral would be divided into either a minimum of A and B subsections or no subsections; an A subsection could not stand alone).'),\n",
" (93,\n",
" 'Headings in a document identify the topic or purpose of the content within each section. Headings help readers become familiar with how a paper’s content is organized, allowing them to easily find the information they seek. Headings should be succinct yet long enough to describe the content; see the sample papers at the end of this chapter for examples of effective headings. Concise headings help readers anticipate key points and track the development of your argument. Headings that are well formatted and clearly worded aid both visual and nonvisual readers of all abilities. Headings must be clearly distinguishable from the text. For a deeper discussion of how to effectively create and use headings (and related text) for all users (including those using assistive technologies), visit the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).'),\n",
" (2, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (95, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (94,\n",
" 'APA Style headings have five possible levels: Level 1 headings are used for top-level or main sections, Level 2 headings are subsections of Level 1, and so on. Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the heading structure for all sections follows the same top-down progression. Each section starts with the highest level of heading, even if one section has fewer levels of subheading than another section. For example, in a paper with Level 1 Method, Results, and Discussion headings, the Method and Results sections may each have two levels of subheading (Levels 2 and 3), and the Discussion section may have only one level of subheading (Level 2). Thus, there would be three levels of heading for the paper overall.'),\n",
" (95,\n",
" 'Format. Table 2.3 shows how to format each level of heading, Figure 2.4 demonstrates the use of headings in the introduction, and Figure 2.5 lists all the headings used in a sample paper in correct format. The sample papers at the end of this chapter also show the use of headings in context.'),\n",
" (91,\n",
" 'Level 1 headings should be centered (and in bold), and Level 2 and 3 headings should be left-aligned (and in bold or bold italic, respectively; see Section 2.27).'),\n",
" (96, 'Figure 2.5 Format of Headings in a Sample Paper'),\n",
" (94,\n",
" 'Headings in the Introduction. Because the first paragraphs of a paper are understood to be introductory, the heading “Introduction” is not needed. Do not begin a paper with an “Introduction” heading; the paper title at the top of the first page of text acts as a de facto Level 1 heading (see Figure 2.4). For subsections within the introduction, use Level 2 headings for the first level of subsection, Level 3 for subsections of any Level 2 headings, and so on. After the introduction (regardless of whether it includes headings), use a Level 1 heading for the next main section of the paper (e.g., Method).'),\n",
" (95,\n",
" 'Level Format 1 Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 2 Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 3 Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 4 Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph. 5 Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.')],\n",
" [(700, 'in APA references generally, 282 (9.3)'),\n",
" (637, 'Ambiguity, with in-text citations, 267 (8.18)'),\n",
" (700, 'Undercitation, 254 (8.1)'),\n",
" (388,\n",
" 'citation in subsequent sentences as long as the source remains clear and unchanged (see Section 8.24). When the author’s name appears in the narrative, the year can be omitted in repeated citations under certain circumstances (see Section 8.16). Figure 8.1 provides an example of an appropriate level of citation.'),\n",
" (599, 'writing the copyright attribution in APA Style.'),\n",
" (665, 'with no author, citing, 264–265 (8.14)'),\n",
" (494, 'Parenthetical citation with abbreviation included:'),\n",
" (249, 'author–date citation')],\n",
" [(257,\n",
" 'Spelling in APA Style papers should conform to the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com). The spellings psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (https://dictionary.apa.org). If a word appears differently in these two dictionaries, follow the spelling in the APA Dictionary of Psychology. If a word is not in either of these dictionaries, consult an unabridged edition of Webster’s dictionary (see https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com). If the dictionary offers a choice of spellings, select one and use it consistently throughout your paper. of'),\n",
" (212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'The spellings of terms related to technology evolve over time. Use the following spellings for some common technology words in APA Style papers:'),\n",
" (243,\n",
" 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.'),\n",
" (257, 'Spelling'),\n",
" (257, '6.11 Preferred Spelling'),\n",
" (243,\n",
" 'Style refers to guidelines for ensuring clear, consistent communication and presentation in written works. APA Style, as described in this Publication Manual, provides guidelines for writing scholarly papers. Publishers and instructors often require authors writing for publication and students writing for a course or degree requirement to follow specific style guidelines to avoid inconsistencies among and within journal articles, book chapters, and academic papers. For example, without style guidelines, authors might use the spellings “health care,” “health-care,” and “healthcare” interchangeably in one work. Although their meaning is the same and the choice of one style over another may seem arbitrary (in this case, “health care,” with a space and no hyphen, is APA Style), such variations in style can distract or confuse readers.'),\n",
" (410, '(American Psychological Association [APA], 2017)'),\n",
" (14,\n",
" 'Excellence in writing is critical for success in many academic and professional pursuits. APA Style is a set of guidelines for clear and precise scholarly communication that helps authors, both new and experienced, achieve excellence in writing. It is used by millions of people around the world in psychology and also in fields ranging from nursing to social work, communications to education, business to engineering, and other disciplines for the preparation of manuscripts for publication as well as for writing student papers, dissertations, and theses. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the authoritative resource for APA Style, and we are proud to deliver its seventh edition.'),\n",
" (410,\n",
" 'In the rare case that two different groups abbreviate to the same form (e.g., both the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association abbreviate to “APA”) and you cite both groups in your paper, spell out each name every time to avoid confusion.')],\n",
" 'In APA Style papers, do not define abbreviations that are listed as terms in the dictionary (e.g., AIDS, IQ). Also do not define measurement abbreviations (see Section 6.27), time abbreviations (see Section 6.28), Latin abbreviations (see Section 6.29), or many statistical abbreviations (see Section 6.44). Define all other abbreviations, even those that may be familiar to your readers (e.g., “RT” for reaction time or “ANOVA” for analysis of variance; see also Section 6.24). After you define an abbreviation, use only the abbreviation; do not alternate between spelling out the term and abbreviating it.'),\n",
" (245, 'in capital letter abbreviations and acronyms (APA, NDA, NIMH, IQ)'),\n",
" (251,\n",
" 'to introduce a label; after the label has been used once, do not use quotation marks for subsequent occurrences'),\n",
" (700, 'in APA references generally, 282 (9.3)'),\n",
" (20,\n",
" 'Formatting of linguistic examples has changed; quotation marks are now used around examples, rather than italics, to promote accessibility.'),\n",
" (410, '(American Psychological Association [APA], 2017)'),\n",
" (407,\n",
" 'a Define the abbreviation for a group author only once in the text, choosing either the parenthetical or the narrative format. Thereafter, use the abbreviation for all mentions of the group in the text (see Section 8.21).')],\n",
" [(91,\n",
" 'Level 1 headings should be centered (and in bold), and Level 2 and 3 headings should be left-aligned (and in bold or bold italic, respectively; see Section 2.27).'),\n",
" (95, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (2, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (95,\n",
" 'Level Format 1 Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 2 Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 3 Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph. 4 Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph. 5 Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.'),\n",
" (91, 'Section labels should be centered (and bold; see Section 2.28).'),\n",
" (93,\n",
" 'There are five possible levels of heading in APA Style (see Section 2.27), and all topics of equal importance should have the same level of heading. For example, in a multiexperiment paper, the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 1 should be the same level as the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 2, with parallel wording. In a single-experiment paper, the Method, Results, and Discussion sections should all have the same heading level. Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section, just like in an outline; use at least two subsection headings within a section, or use none (e.g., in an outline, a section numbered with a Roman numeral would be divided into either a minimum of A and B subsections or no subsections; an A subsection could not stand alone).'),\n",
" (91,\n",
" 'Appendix labels and titles should be centered (and bold; see Section 2.14).'),\n",
" (94,\n",
" 'APA Style headings have five possible levels: Level 1 headings are used for top-level or main sections, Level 2 headings are subsections of Level 1, and so on. Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the heading structure for all sections follows the same top-down progression. Each section starts with the highest level of heading, even if one section has fewer levels of subheading than another section. For example, in a paper with Level 1 Method, Results, and Discussion headings, the Method and Results sections may each have two levels of subheading (Levels 2 and 3), and the Discussion section may have only one level of subheading (Level 2). Thus, there would be three levels of heading for the paper overall.'),\n",
" 'Place the section label “References” in bold at the top of the page, centered.')],\n",
" [(189,\n",
" 'Concise writing must also be clear. Be deliberate in your word choices, making certain that every word means exactly what you intend. For example, in informal style, “feel” broadly substitutes for “think” or “believe,” but in academic style, such latitude in word choice is not acceptable. Likewise, using a word with multiple meanings can cause confusion. For example, some writers use the word “significant” to mean “important,” whereas others use “significant” only in the context of statistical significance testing; ensure that your intended meaning is clear. Choose words and phrases carefully, and specify the intended meaning if there is potential for ambiguity.'),\n",
" (212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (296,\n",
" 'As with all aspects of paper preparation, ensure that there are no ambiguities that could lead to errors in final production, particularly with mathematical and statistical symbols, unusual characters, and complex alignments (e.g., subscripts, superscripts). Avoid misunderstandings and corrections by preparing mathematical copy carefully.'),\n",
" (189,\n",
" 'Word choice is especially important when talking about people who are members of specific groups, such as in a Method section. Carefully consider the descriptors you use, making sure they are accurate, consistent with current preferred terminology, and in line with how the individuals you are writing about describe themselves. In no case should you use biased, pejorative, or demeaning language (see Chapter 5 for guidelines on using bias-free language).'),\n",
" (613,\n",
" 'a concise, unambiguous wording of the correction or, in the case of an error in a table or figure, a replacement version of the table or figure'),\n",
" (215,\n",
" 'Precision is essential in scholarly writing; when you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias or prejudicial connotations. Bias, like inaccurate or unclear language, can be a form of imprecision. For example, using “man” to refer to all human beings is not as accurate or inclusive as using the terms “individuals,” “people,” or “persons.”'),\n",
" (612,\n",
" 'It is not necessary to formally correct every error found in a published article. Minor typographical errors do not need to be called out as part of the public record of science. The following are examples of errors that need formal, public correction:'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'Spelling in APA Style papers should conform to the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com). The spellings psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (https://dictionary.apa.org). If a word appears differently in these two dictionaries, follow the spelling in the APA Dictionary of Psychology. If a word is not in either of these dictionaries, consult an unabridged edition of Webster’s dictionary (see https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com). If the dictionary offers a choice of spellings, select one and use it consistently throughout your paper. of'),\n",
" (189,\n",
" 'Strive for a professional tone and professional language (see Sections 4.7–4.9). Avoid heavy alliteration, rhyming, poetic expressions, and clichés. Use metaphors sparingly; although they can help simplify complicated ideas, metaphors can also be distracting or unclear. Avoid mixed metaphors (e.g., “a theory representing one branch of a growing body of evidence”) and words with surplus or unintended meanings (e.g., “outstanding” for “remaining”), which may distract or mislead readers. Use figurative expressions with restraint and colorful expressions with care; because these expressions can be open to interpretation and even cultural differences, they generally do not add to understanding for all possible readers. Instead, make direct, logical comparisons (see Section 4.10) and clearly attribute actions (see Section 4.11).'),\n",
" (195,\n",
" 'Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences distract readers, introduce ambiguity, and impede clear communication. The examples in this section represent common grammar and usage errors that often appear in papers submitted to journal editors and academic instructors.')],\n",
" [(432,\n",
" 'Ensure that a period appears after each reference element—that is, after the author, date, title, and source. However, do not put a period after a DOI or URL because it may interfere with link functionality.'),\n",
" (456,\n",
" 'Do not add a period after the DOI or URL because it may interfere with link functionality.'),\n",
" (402,\n",
" 'When text and a citation appear together in parentheses, use a semicolon to separate the citation from the text; do not use parentheses within parentheses.'),\n",
" (276,\n",
" 'If a citation accompanies an abbreviation, include the citation after the abbreviation, separated with a semicolon. Do not use nested or back-to- back parentheses.'),\n",
" (244,\n",
" 'Note: We recommend using one space after the period or other punctuation mark at the end of a sentence; however, follow the guidelines of your publisher or instructor if they have different requirements. '),\n",
" (432, '9.5 Punctuation Within Reference List Entries'),\n",
" 'If the citation appears at the end of a sentence, put the end punctuation after the closing parenthesis for the citation. If the quotation includes citations, see Section 8.32; if the quotation includes material already in quotation marks, see Section 8.33. Place periods and commas within closing single or double quotation marks. Place other punctuation marks inside quotation marks only when they are part of the quoted material.'),\n",
" (700, 'in APA references generally, 282 (9.3)'),\n",
" (245, 'Do not use periods in the following cases:')],\n",
" [(259, 'Do not hyphenate'),\n",
" (255,\n",
" 'to clarify a comparison in a compound adjective, especially when one of the elements is a hyphenated compound (alternatively, use an en dash; see Section 6.6)'),\n",
" (258,\n",
" 'If the compound appears after the noun it modifies, do not use a hyphen because, in almost all cases, the phrase is sufficiently clear without one. See Table 6.1 for further examples of hyphen use in temporary compounds.'),\n",
" (258, '6.12 Hyphenation'),\n",
" (661, 'Hyphen'),\n",
" (259,\n",
" 'Grammar guideline Example Hyphenate A compound with a participle when it precedes the term it decision-making behavior water-deprived modifies animals Canadian-born actor A phrase used as an adjective when it precedes the term it trial-by-trial analysis to-be-recalled items modifies one-on-one interviews An adjective-and-noun compound when it precedes the high-anxiety group term it modifies middle-class families low-frequency words A compound with a number as the first element when the six-trial problem compound precedes the term it modifies 12th-grade students 16-min interval A fraction used as an adjective two-thirds majority'),\n",
" (258,\n",
" 'Compound words—words composed of two or more words—take many forms; they may be written as (a) two separate words (open), (b) one hyphenated word, or (c) one solid word. Compound words are often introduced into the language as separate or hyphenated words; as they become more commonplace, they tend to fuse into a solid word. For example, “data base” has become “database,” and “e-mail” has become “email.” The dictionary is an excellent guide for choosing the proper form: When a compound appears in the dictionary, its usage is established, and it is considered a permanent compound (e.g., “health care,” “self-esteem,” “caregiver”). In general, follow the hyphenation shown in the dictionary for permanent compounds (e.g., write “health care” without a hyphen, even in a phrase like “health care setting”); adjust hyphenation only to prevent misreading. Dictionaries do not always agree on the way a compound should be written (open, hyphenated, or solid); Section 6.11 specifies the dictionaries to use for APA Style papers.'),\n",
" (90,\n",
" 'Align the text to the left and leave the right margin uneven (“ragged”). Do not use full justification, which adjusts the spacing between words to make all lines the same length (flush with the margins). Do not manually divide words at the end of a line, and do not use the hyphenation function to break words at the ends of lines. Do not manually insert line breaks into long DOIs or URLs; however, breaks in DOIs or URLs applied automatically by a word- processing program are permissible.'),\n",
" (249,\n",
" 'Two kinds of dash are used in APA Style: the em dash (long dash) and the en dash (midsized dash). These dashes are different from hyphens (see Section 6.12) and minus signs (see Section 6.45).'),\n",
" (260,\n",
" 'When two or more compound modifiers have a common base, that base is sometimes omitted in all except the last modifier, but the hyphens are retained. Leave a space after the hyphen when the base has been omitted, unless punctuation follows the hyphen.')],\n",
" [(212,\n",
" 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment. APA uses Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary and the APA Dictionary of Psychology as its authorities on spelling (for additional information on spelling, see Sections 6.11–6.12). Grammar-check functions are useful for identifying problematic sentence structure. Keep in mind, however, that grammar is complex and therefore grammar-checkers are not infallible.'),\n",
" (230,\n",
" 'Across contexts, write about the people who participated in your work in a way that acknowledges their contributions and agency. Sentence structure plays a key role in this acknowledgment, as does using professional language (see Section 4.7). Use the active voice to describe your actions and the actions of participants (see Section 4.13); the passive voice suggests individuals are acted upon instead of being actors (e.g., “the subjects completed the trial” and “we collected data from the participants” are preferable to “the trial was completed by the subjects” and “the participants were run”). Avoid the term “failed,” as in “eight participants failed to complete the Rorschach test,” because it can imply a personal shortcoming instead of a research result; “did not complete” is a more neutral choice (Knatterud, 1991). These choices will help ensure that you convey respect for the people about whom you are writing.'),\n",
" (243,\n",
" 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.'),\n",
" (214,\n",
" 'Some attempts to follow the guidelines in this chapter may result in wordiness or clumsy prose. As always, good judgment is required—these are not rigid rules. If your writing reflects respect for your participants and your readers, and if you write with appropriate specificity and precision, you contribute to the goal of accurate, unbiased communication. This chapter contains general guidelines for writing without bias that apply across a range of issues and additional guidelines that address specific topics, including age, disability, gender, participation in research, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality. Additional examples of bias-free language can be found on the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'Spelling in APA Style papers should conform to the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com). The spellings psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (https://dictionary.apa.org). If a word appears differently in these two dictionaries, follow the spelling in the APA Dictionary of Psychology. If a word is not in either of these dictionaries, consult an unabridged edition of Webster’s dictionary (see https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com). If the dictionary offers a choice of spellings, select one and use it consistently throughout your paper. of'),\n",
" (257,\n",
" 'The spellings of terms related to technology evolve over time. Use the following spellings for some common technology words in APA Style papers:'),\n",
" (296,\n",
" 'As with all aspects of paper preparation, ensure that there are no ambiguities that could lead to errors in final production, particularly with mathematical and statistical symbols, unusual characters, and complex alignments (e.g., subscripts, superscripts). Avoid misunderstandings and corrections by preparing mathematical copy carefully.'),\n",
" (136,\n",
" 'coherent and readable: Write in clear and deliberate language. Use verbs rather than their noun equivalents and the active rather than the passive voice (e.g., “investigated” instead of “an investigation of”; “we present results” instead of “results are presented”; see Section 4.13). Use the present tense to describe conclusions drawn or results with continuing applicability; use the past tense to describe specific variables manipulated or outcomes measured. If presenting statistical or mathematical information, see Sections 6.40 to 6.48 for the appropriate formats.'),\n",
" (232,\n",
" 'Do not use hyphens in multiword names, even if the names act as unit modifiers (e.g., write “Asian American participants,” not “Asian-American participants”). If people belong to multiple racial or ethnic groups, the names of the specific groups are capitalized, but the terms “multiracial,” “biracial,” “multi-ethnic,” and so on are lowercase.'),\n",
" (216,\n",
" 'When writing about people who took part in research, terms that indicate the context of the research (e.g., patients, participants, clients) are more specific than general terms (e.g., people, children, women; see Section 5.6).')],\n",
" [(287,\n",
" 'When properly scaled, most data can be effectively presented with two decimal digits of accuracy. Report correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics such as t, F, and chi-square to two decimals. When reporting data measured on integer scales (as with many questionnaires), report means and standard deviations to one decimal place (as group measures, they are more stable than individual scores). Report exact p values (e.g., p = .031) to two or three decimal places. However, report p values less than .001 as p < .001. The tradition of reporting p values in the form of p < .10, p < .05, p < .01, and so forth was appropriate in a time when only limited tables of critical values were available. However, in tables the “p <” notation may be necessary for clarity (see Section 7.14). For guidance on the types of statistics to report in your paper, see the reporting standards for quantitative methods and results (Sections 3.6–3.7).'),\n",
" (289,\n",
" 'APA Style for presenting statistical and mathematical copy reflects (a) the standards of content and form agreed on in the field and (b) the requirements of clear communication. The Publication Manual addresses standards for presentation only; it does not provide guidance on how to choose statistics, conduct analyses, or interpret results. Consult a statistics reference work or a statistician for help if needed.'),\n",
" (298, '6.45 Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation for Statistics'),\n",
" (286,\n",
" 'Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the statistic cannot be greater than 1 (e.g., correlations, proportions, levels of statistical significance).'),\n",
" (289,\n",
" 'Do not provide a reference for a statistic in common use (e.g., Cohen’s d); this convention applies to most statistics used in journal articles. Provide a reference when (a) less common statistics are used, (b) a statistic is used in an unconventional or controversial way, or (c) the statistic itself is the focus of the paper.'),\n",
" (617,\n",
" 'Table 3.1: Adapted from “Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board Task Force Report,” by M. Appelbaum, H. Cooper, R. B. Kline, E. Mayo-Wilson, A. M. Nezu, and S. M. Rao, 2018, American Psychologist, 73(1), pp. (https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000191). Copyright 2018 by the American Psychological Association. 6–8'),\n",
" (320,\n",
" 'Use standard abbreviations and symbols for all statistics (e.g., M, SD, SE, F, df, n, p), Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2), and units of measurement (see Tables 6.4–6.5) used in tables without defining them in a note. This guidance also applies to statistics, Greek letters, and units of measurement appearing in figures (see Section 7.28 for more on figure notes). The abbreviation “no.” (for “number”) and the symbol “%” (for “percent”) may also be used without providing a definition. Other abbreviations used in a table or figure should be defined in the table or figure title, body, or note, even if the abbreviations are also defined in the paper (see Sections 6.25 and 6.44). Except where it makes sense to group similar abbreviations, define the abbreviations in the order that they appear in the table, starting at the top left and moving left to right, top to bottom.'),\n",
" (286,\n",
" 'Use a zero before the decimal point in numbers that are less than 1 when the statistic can exceed 1.'),\n",
" (298,\n",
" \"Align signs and symbols carefully. Use the subscript and superscript functions of your word-processing program. In most cases, type subscripts first and then superscripts (xa 2). However, place a subscript or superscript such as the symbol for prime right next to its letter or symbol (x'a). Because APA prefers to align subscripts and superscripts one under the other (“stacking”) for ease of reading instead of setting one to the right of the other (“staggering”), if you are publishing an article that includes statistics in an APA journal, your subscripts and superscripts will be stacked when they are typeset. If subscripts and superscripts should not be stacked, indicate this in a cover letter or in the manuscript.\"),\n",
" (155,\n",
" 'For inferential statistical tests (e.g., t, F, and chi-square tests), include the obtained magnitude or value of the test statistic, the degrees of freedom, the probability of obtaining a value as extreme as or more extreme than the one obtained (exact p value), and the size and direction of the effect. When point estimates (e.g., sample means, regression coefficients) are provided, always include an associated measure of variability (precision), with an indication of the specific measure used (e.g., standard error).')],\n",
" [(200,\n",
" 'Pronouns replace nouns, and each pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent. To avoid ambiguity in attribution, use the first person rather than the third person when describing the work you did as part of your research and when expressing your own views. If you are writing a paper by yourself, use the pronoun “I”; do not use the pronoun “we” to refer to yourself if you do not have coauthors (see also Section 4.17). If you are writing a paper with coauthors, use the pronoun “we.” Do not refer to yourself or your coauthors in the third person as “the author(s)” or “the researcher(s).”'),\n",
" (200, '4.16 First- Versus Third-Person Pronouns'),\n",
" (213,\n",
" 'Authors must strive to use language that is free of bias, meaning the implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups they are writing about. As an organization, APA is committed to both the advancement of science and the fair treatment of individuals and groups. These principles require that authors and students who use APA Style avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes in their writing. It is unacceptable to use constructions that might imply prejudicial beliefs or perpetuate biased assumptions against persons on the basis of age, disability, gender, participation in research, racial or ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, or some combination of these or other personal factors (e.g., marital status, immigration status, religion). Instead, authors should use affirming and inclusive language.'),\n",
" (197,\n",
" 'Choose voice carefully. Both the active and passive voices are permitted in APA Style, but many writers overuse the passive voice. Use the active voice as much as possible to create direct, clear, and concise sentences. For example, use the active voice to describe the actions of participants and others involved in your study (see Section 5.6), as in “the patients took the medication orally,” not “the medication was taken orally by the patients.”'),\n",
" (657, 'First-person pronouns'),\n",
" (201,\n",
" 'Writers should always use the singular “they” to refer to a person who uses “they” as their pronoun (see Section 5.5 for more on gender and pronoun usage). Also use “they” as a generic third-person singular pronoun to refer to a person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant to the context of the usage. Although usage of the singular “they” was once discouraged in academic writing, many advocacy groups and publishers have accepted and endorsed it, including Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (Merriam-Webster, n.d.-b). The use of the singular “they” is inclusive of all people, helps writers avoid making assumptions about gender, and is part of APA Style.'),\n",
" (15, 'Why Use APA Style?'),\n",
" (214,\n",
" 'Some attempts to follow the guidelines in this chapter may result in wordiness or clumsy prose. As always, good judgment is required—these are not rigid rules. If your writing reflects respect for your participants and your readers, and if you write with appropriate specificity and precision, you contribute to the goal of accurate, unbiased communication. This chapter contains general guidelines for writing without bias that apply across a range of issues and additional guidelines that address specific topics, including age, disability, gender, participation in research, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality. Additional examples of bias-free language can be found on the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).'),\n",
" (679, 'first- vs. third-person, 120 (4.16)'),\n",
" (194,\n",
" 'Pair active verbs with human actors (e.g., write “we extrapolated the rate of change” rather than “the study extrapolated the rate of change”). However, many acceptable constructions in widespread use do not constitute anthropomorphism because they do not impede understanding or mislead readers. When describing the content of different sections of a paper, you may write, for example, “this section addresses” or “the chapter focuses on” as well as “in this section we address” or “in this chapter, we focus on” (see Section 6.3 for comma use with introductory phrases). Similarly, when describing the results of a study, you may write “the results suggest,” “the data provide,” “the research contributes,” “the study found,” and so forth.')],\n",
" [(450,\n",
" 'Do not include designations of business structure (e.g., Inc., Ltd., LLC) in the publisher name.'),\n",
" (450,\n",
" 'The format of publisher names may vary over time and across works (e.g., SAGE Publishing vs. Sage Publications); use the spelling and capitalization of the publisher name as shown on the work you used. It is not necessary to standardize the presentation of a publisher’s name if it appears in multiple entries in a reference list.'),\n",
" (450,\n",
" 'Note: Some publishers may prefer to abbreviate publisher names (e.g., “John Wiley & Sons” to “Wiley”) to save space in reference list entries; this is acceptable as part of a house style. If you intend to publish your work, consult the policies of the publisher to determine whether to follow this practice. '),\n",
" (450,\n",
" 'If the work is published by an imprint or division, use the imprint or division as the publisher (e.g., Magination Press, which is an imprint of the American Psychological Association, would be used as the publisher).'),\n",
" (450,\n",
" 'Write the publisher name as shown on the work, followed by a period. Do not abbreviate the publisher name unless it is shown in abbreviated form on the work.'),\n",
" (24,\n",
" 'The Publication Manual refers to numerous products and services that are not affiliated with the American Psychological Association but that our readers may encounter or use during the process of research, writing, and publication. The trademarks referenced in the Publication Manual are the property of their respective owners. The inclusion of non-APA products is for reference only and should not be construed as an endorsement of or affiliation between APA and the owners of these products and their respective brands.'),\n",
" (451,\n",
" 'When the author is the same as the publisher (such as with an annual report written and published by the same company, a reference book published by a professional organization, or a work from an organizational website), omit the publisher from the reference to avoid repetition (see Chapter 10, Examples 32, 50, 54, and 55).'),\n",
" (450,\n",
" 'The name of the publisher is provided in the source element for a number of reference categories, including whole books, edited book chapters, reports, computer software and mobile apps, and data sets. Do not include the publisher location in the reference. Online search makes a work easily discoverable without it, and it may be unclear what location to provide for publishers with offices worldwide or online-only publishers that do not readily disclose their location.'),\n",
" (449,\n",
" 'For a reference work (e.g., Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, APA Dictionary of Psychology, mobile app reference work) with a group author, do not repeat the group author name in the source element when the publisher is the same as the author. Simply write “In” and the name of the reference work in italics (see Chapter 10, Examples 47 and 80).'),\n",
" (409,\n",
" 'If a reference has a group author, the name of the group can sometimes be abbreviated—for example, “American Psychological Association” can be abbreviated to “APA.” You are not obligated to abbreviate the name of a group author, but you can if the abbreviation is well-known, will help avoid cumbersome repetition, or will appear at least three times in the paper.')],\n",
" [(266,\n",
" 'titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and other works in reference list entries, even if title case was used in the original work (see also Section 9.19)'),\n",
" (557,\n",
" 'Note: Unlike other reference types, the title or name of a case is written in standard type in the reference list entry and in italic type in the in-text citation. '),\n",
" (557,\n",
" 'Note: Unlike other reference types, the title or name of a case is written in standard type in the reference list entry and in italic type in the in-text citation.'),\n",
" (436,\n",
" 'Do not include titles, positions, ranks, or academic achievements with names in reference list entries (e.g., Reverend, President, General, PhD, LCSW). A few reference types include an author’s role in parentheses, when needed (e.g., film director; see Chapter 10, Example 84).'),\n",
" (700, 'in APA references generally, 282 (9.3)'),\n",
" (444,\n",
" 'For book and report references, enclose in parentheses after the title any additional information given in the publication for its identification and retrieval (e.g., edition, report number, volume number). Do not add a period between the title and the parenthetical information, and do not italicize the parenthetical information. If both edition and volume information are included, separate these elements with a comma, placing the edition number first.'),\n",
" (494,\n",
" 'It is common, but not required, to identify the title (and edition) of a diagnostic manual in the text. Group authors and manual titles can be abbreviated in the text (with a few exceptions) but not the reference list (see Sections 6.25 and 8.21).'),\n",
" (443,\n",
" 'For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters), do not italicize the title or use quotation marks, and capitalize it using sentence case (see Section 6.17).'),\n",
" (432,\n",
" 'Note. This table illustrates how reference category templates change when reference elements such as the author (Section 9.12), date (Section 9.17), title (Section 9.22), and/or source (Section 9.37) are missing. Italic formatting within the title or source varies by category and is not shown here. To create a reference list entry, follow the template for the work’s reference category (see Section 9.1) and adjust the information as shown here.'),\n",
" (448,\n",
" 'If an article with an article number also has numbered pages (such as in a PDF), those page numbers may be used for in-text citations (see Sections 8.23 and 8.25) but do not appear in the reference list entry.')],\n",
" [(265,\n",
" 'APA Style uses two types of capitalization for titles of works and headings within works: title case and sentence case. In title case, major words are capitalized. In sentence case, most words are lowercased. Nouns, verbs (including linking verbs), adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and all words of four letters or more are considered major words. Short (i.e., three letters or fewer) conjunctions, short prepositions, and all articles are considered minor words.'),\n",
" (95, 'Note. In title case, most words are capitalized (see Section 6.17).'),\n",
" (266,\n",
" 'Sentence Case. In sentence case, lowercase most words in the title or heading. Capitalize only the following words:'),\n",
" (267,\n",
" 'Note: Words in the image of a figure (see Section 7.26) may be in either title case or sentence case. Follow the same guidelines for capitalization in a figure image as used in the text. '),\n",
" (262,\n",
" 'APA Style is a “down” style, meaning that words are lowercase unless there is specific guidance to capitalize them, as described in the following sections.'),\n",
" (266,\n",
" 'titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and other works in reference list entries, even if title case was used in the original work (see also Section 9.19)'),\n",
" (410,\n",
" 'A variation of this technique is also used for general mentions of periodicals. For example, if you want to include the name of a journal you searched during a meta-analysis, provide the journal title (in italic) using title case.'),\n",
" (267,\n",
" 'Capitalize titles of published and unpublished tests and measures and their subscales. Do not capitalize words such as “test” and “scale” unless they are part of the test or subscale title. See Section 10.11 for more on use of italics with the titles of test and measures.'),\n",
" (443,\n",
" 'For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters), do not italicize the title or use quotation marks, and capitalize it using sentence case (see Section 6.17).'),\n",
" (443,\n",
" 'For works that stand alone (e.g., books, reports, webpages and websites), italicize the title, and capitalize it using sentence case (see Section 6.17).')],\n",
" [(2, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (95, 'Table 2.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style'),\n",
" (91,\n",
" 'Level 1 headings should be centered (and in bold), and Level 2 and 3 headings should be left-aligned (and in bold or bold italic, respectively; see Section 2.27).'),\n",
" (93,\n",
" 'There are five possible levels of heading in APA Style (see Section 2.27), and all topics of equal importance should have the same level of heading. For example, in a multiexperiment paper, the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 1 should be the same level as the headings for the Method and Results sections for Experiment 2, with parallel wording. In a single-experiment paper, the Method, Results, and Discussion sections should all have the same heading level. Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section, just like in an outline; use at least two subsection headings within a section, or use none (e.g., in an outline, a section numbered with a Roman numeral would be divided into either a minimum of A and B subsections or no subsections; an A subsection could not stand alone).'),\n",
" 'content': 'to introduce a label; after the label has been used once, do not use quotation marks for subsequent occurrences',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, quotation marks are used to introduce a label or a term. Once the label has been introduced, you should not use quotation marks for subsequent occurrences of the acronym.',\n",
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 251, 'content': 'Do not use double quotation marks in the following cases: to highlight a key term or phrase (e.g., around a term for which you are going to provide a definition); instead, use italics (see Section 6.22)', 'correction_explanation': 'Quotation marks are not needed for common terms unless they are being introduced or defined. Instead, use italics if emphasis is necessary.', 'correction': 'weight'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 320, 'content': 'Use standard abbreviations and symbols for all statistics (e.g., M, SD, SE, F, df, n, p), Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2), and units of measurement (see Tables 6.4–6.5) used in tables without defining them in a note. This guidance also applies to statistics, Greek letters, and units of measurement appearing in figures (see Section 7.28 for more on figure notes). The abbreviation “no.” (for “number”) and the symbol “%” (for “percent”) may also be used without providing a definition. Other abbreviations used in a table or figure should be defined in the table or figure title, body, or note, even if the abbreviations are also defined in the paper (see Sections 6.25 and 6.44). Except where it makes sense to group similar abbreviations, define the abbreviations in the order that they appear in the table, starting at the top left and moving left to right, top to bottom.', 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition guidelines, standard abbreviations, like MPG (Miles Per Gallon), should be used without quotation marks unless they are being defined or introduced for the first time. Quotation marks are unnecessary once the acronym has been established.', 'correction': 'MPG'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 48, 'content': 'In APA Style, Level 2 headings should be bold and flush left. This ensures consistency and clarity in the structure of the document.', 'correction_explanation': 'The error in the document is an inconsistent heading style for a Level 2 heading. According to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, page 48, Level 2 headings should be bold and flush left. Ensuring that headings are correctly formatted helps maintain a clear hierarchy and improves readability.', 'correction': 'Research Hypothesis'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 48, 'content': 'Headings should follow a consistent style, bold and centered for Level 1.', 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition, headings at Level 1 should be bold and centered to maintain a consistent style throughout the document.', 'correction': 'Ensure that all Level 1 headings in the document are bold and centered.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 253, 'content': \"APA 7th Edition provides guidelines for creating complete and clear citations. A citation must include the author's last name, the publication year, and the specific source or page number to ensure proper attribution and clarity.\", 'correction_explanation': \"The error is an incomplete citation that lacks the necessary author or source details required for clarity and proper attribution. According to the APA 7th Edition, a complete citation should include the author's last name and the publication year. If the author is unknown, the title of the work and the year of publication should be provided instead.\", 'correction': \"(Author's Last Name, Year) or (Title of the Work, Year if Author is unknown)\"}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 270, 'content': 'In APA Style, when a citation is part of a sentence, the period should come after the closing parenthesis of the citation. For example, if a citation appears at the end of a sentence, write it as (Author, Year) without a period inside the parentheses. The period follows the closing parenthesis.', 'correction_explanation': 'The error was the placement of the period inside the citation parentheses when it should have been placed after the closing parenthesis. According to APA Style guidelines, when a citation is part of a sentence, the appropriate punctuation, such as a period, should follow the citation outside the parentheses.', 'correction': '(Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31).'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': '263', 'content': \"When citing multiple works by the same author with the same year, use a lowercase letter after the year to differentiate them. If the date is not available, use 'n.d.-a', 'n.d.-b', etc. Ensure periods after 'n.d.' and separate citations with semicolons.\", 'correction_explanation': \"Differentiate works by the same author by adding lowercase letters after 'n.d.', and ensure proper punctuation with periods.\", 'correction': '(Blackboard, n.d.-a; Salkind & Frey, 2020)'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 402, 'content': 'In rare cases, the author and date might both appear in the narrative. In this case, do not use parentheses.', 'correction_explanation': \"The APA guidelines emphasize the importance of clarity and accuracy in writing. The word 'proximity' in the sentence does not convey the intended meaning of 'approximately,' which is essential for clear communication in scientific writing. Therefore, it should be corrected to 'approximately' to ensure the sentence accurately reflects the intended meaning.\", 'correction': 'We will assume that they are approximately normally distributed.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 243, 'content': 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.', 'correction_explanation': \"According to the APA Publication Manual, compound adjectives should be hyphenated only when they precede the noun they modify. In the phrase 'a straight-line through,' 'straight line' is not preceding a noun it modifies and thus should not be hyphenated.\", 'correction': 'a straight line through'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 700, 'content': 'Undercitation, 254 (8.1)', 'correction_explanation': \"The word 'signification' is a typographical error and should be corrected to 'significant.' Accurate terminology is essential for clear communication as per APA guidelines.\", 'correction': 'significant relationship'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 'Not provided in the current list', 'content': \"Spelling should adhere to standard American English conventions. The word 'dependant' should be spelled 'dependent' when used in the context of something that relies on something else.\", 'correction_explanation': \"According to APA style, ensure correct spelling and usage of terms. 'Dependant' is a British English spelling for a noun meaning someone who relies on someone else, while 'dependent' is the correct American English spelling for both the noun and adjective.\", 'correction': 'dependent variable'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 212, 'content': 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment.', 'correction_explanation': \"The error involves a missing article 'a' before 'general method'. In APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23 emphasizes the importance of using articles appropriately to ensure clarity and precision in scholarly writing. Proper grammar and usage checks, as suggested, would help in identifying such errors.\", 'correction': 'Linear regression is a general method for estimating association...'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': '462', 'content': 'Place the section label “References” in bold at the top of the page, centered.', 'correction_explanation': \"The error involves the incorrect use of the preposition 'on' instead of 'of' when describing a relationship between variables. According to APA guidelines, using accurate prepositions is crucial for clarity in writing. The reference to section labels being centered and bold suggests attention to detail in formatting, akin to ensuring precise language use.\", 'correction': 'It is a prediction of one variable from another variable.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 250, 'content': '6.7 Quotation Marks', 'correction_explanation': 'The error identified pertains to the incorrect section heading format. According to the APA 7th Edition, section headings must be concise and appropriately formatted with correct punctuation. The reference to Section 6.7 discusses the usage of quotation marks, indicating that correct punctuation is crucial for clarity in headings and other textual elements.', 'correction': 'Part 4: Then, the regression findings using the template...'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 296, 'content': 'As with all aspects of paper preparation, ensure that there are no ambiguities that could lead to errors in final production, particularly with mathematical and statistical symbols, unusual characters, and complex alignments (e.g., subscripts, superscripts). Avoid misunderstandings and corrections by preparing mathematical copy carefully.', 'correction_explanation': 'The APA guidelines require that all superscripts in tables must be defined to ensure clarity. This prevents any ambiguity in interpreting the data presented.', 'correction': \"Weightb (where 'b' indicates the specific condition under which the weight was measured, to be defined in the table note).\"}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 112, 'content': 'Correct spelling is important for professionalism and clarity.', 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, correct spelling is crucial in maintaining professionalism and clarity in writing. It ensures the document is easily understood and maintains a high standard of presentation.', 'correction': 'A simple linear regression was calculated to predict MPG based on the weight of the vehicle.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 289, 'content': 'APA Style for presenting statistical and mathematical copy reflects (a) the standards of content and form agreed on in the field and (b) the requirements of clear communication. The Publication Manual addresses standards for presentation only; it does not provide guidance on how to choose statistics, conduct analyses, or interpret results. Consult a statistics reference work or a statistician for help if needed.', 'correction_explanation': \"The word 'Partcipants’' is misspelled and should be corrected to 'Participants’' to ensure clarity and readability. Additionally, the mathematical expression should be clear and follow the APA Style guidelines for presenting statistical and mathematical copy.\", 'correction': 'Participants’ predicted weight is equal to 35.882 + 0.004(MPG) weight when MPG is measured in lbs.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 89, 'content': 'The format for reporting statistics should be clear and in accordance with APA style. The negative sign should be adjacent to the numeral without a space.', 'correction_explanation': 'In APA style, the negative sign should be directly next to the numeral it modifies without any space. This ensures clarity and conformity with statistical reporting standards.', 'correction': 'Weight decreased -0.004 for each gallon of MPG.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 24, 'content': 'The Publication Manual refers to numerous products and services that are not affiliated with the American Psychological Association but that our readers may encounter or use during the process of research, writing, and publication.', 'correction_explanation': 'The use of first-person pronouns is discouraged in APA style to maintain objectivity and formality. Sentences should be rephrased to avoid first-person pronouns, which can be achieved by using passive voice or rephrasing the sentence altogether.', 'correction': 'The degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon was investigated.'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 243, 'content': 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.', 'correction_explanation': \"When citing publishers in APA Style, words such as 'Publishers', 'Co.', 'Inc.', etc., should be omitted unless they are part of the official title. This ensures clarity and adherence to APA citation standards.\", 'correction': 'Sage'}\n"
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 443, 'content': 'For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters), do not italicize the title or use quotation marks, and capitalize it using sentence case (see Section 6.17).', 'correction_explanation': 'The title in the reference list should be in sentence case and should not be italicized or enclosed in brackets. This aligns with APA guidelines stating that titles of works that are part of a greater whole should use sentence case and not be italicized.', 'correction': 'Variables and hypotheses. (n.d.). Variables and hypotheses.'}\n",
"reference_info: {'reference_page': 266, 'content': 'Sentence Case. In sentence case, lowercase most words in the title or heading. Capitalize only the following words: titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and other works in reference list entries, even if title case was used in the original work (see also Section 9.19)', 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition Manual, section 9.19, titles should be formatted in sentence case. This means that you should lowercase most words in the title, capitalizing only the first word of the title and subtitle, as well as any proper nouns and acronyms.', 'correction': 'Blackboard. (n.d.). Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.'}\n"
" 'reference_page_content': 'Do not use double quotation marks in the following cases: to highlight a key term or phrase (e.g., around a term for which you are going to provide a definition); instead, use italics (see Section 6.22)',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'Quotation marks are not needed for common terms unless they are being introduced or defined. Instead, use italics if emphasis is necessary.',\n",
" 'correction': 'weight'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 1',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '8',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(“MPG”)?',\n",
" 'reference_page': 320,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Use standard abbreviations and symbols for all statistics (e.g., M, SD, SE, F, df, n, p), Greek letters (e.g., α, β, χ2), and units of measurement (see Tables 6.4–6.5) used in tables without defining them in a note. This guidance also applies to statistics, Greek letters, and units of measurement appearing in figures (see Section 7.28 for more on figure notes). The abbreviation “no.” (for “number”) and the symbol “%” (for “percent”) may also be used without providing a definition. Other abbreviations used in a table or figure should be defined in the table or figure title, body, or note, even if the abbreviations are also defined in the paper (see Sections 6.25 and 6.44). Except where it makes sense to group similar abbreviations, define the abbreviations in the order that they appear in the table, starting at the top left and moving left to right, top to bottom.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition guidelines, standard abbreviations, like MPG (Miles Per Gallon), should be used without quotation marks unless they are being defined or introduced for the first time. Quotation marks are unnecessary once the acronym has been established.',\n",
" 'correction': 'MPG'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 1',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '12',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Research hypothesis',\n",
" 'reference_page': 48,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'In APA Style, Level 2 headings should be bold and flush left. This ensures consistency and clarity in the structure of the document.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The error in the document is an inconsistent heading style for a Level 2 heading. According to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, page 48, Level 2 headings should be bold and flush left. Ensuring that headings are correctly formatted helps maintain a clear hierarchy and improves readability.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Research Hypothesis'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 1',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '22',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Interval Variable',\n",
" 'reference_page': 48,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Headings should follow a consistent style, bold and centered for Level 1.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition, headings at Level 1 should be bold and centered to maintain a consistent style throughout the document.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Ensure that all Level 1 headings in the document are bold and centered.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 1',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '28',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(Variables and Hypotheses. n.d.)',\n",
" 'reference_page': 253,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': \"APA 7th Edition provides guidelines for creating complete and clear citations. A citation must include the author's last name, the publication year, and the specific source or page number to ensure proper attribution and clarity.\",\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The error is an incomplete citation that lacks the necessary author or source details required for clarity and proper attribution. According to the APA 7th Edition, a complete citation should include the author's last name and the publication year. If the author is unknown, the title of the work and the year of publication should be provided instead.\",\n",
" 'correction': \"(Author's Last Name, Year) or (Title of the Work, Year if Author is unknown)\"},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 1',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '32',\n",
" 'Error Text': '(Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31)',\n",
" 'reference_page': 270,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'In APA Style, when a citation is part of a sentence, the period should come after the closing parenthesis of the citation. For example, if a citation appears at the end of a sentence, write it as (Author, Year) without a period inside the parentheses. The period follows the closing parenthesis.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The error was the placement of the period inside the citation parentheses when it should have been placed after the closing parenthesis. According to APA Style guidelines, when a citation is part of a sentence, the appropriate punctuation, such as a period, should follow the citation outside the parentheses.',\n",
" 'correction': '(Salkind & Frey, 2020, p. 31).'},\n",
" 'reference_page_content': \"When citing multiple works by the same author with the same year, use a lowercase letter after the year to differentiate them. If the date is not available, use 'n.d.-a', 'n.d.-b', etc. Ensure periods after 'n.d.' and separate citations with semicolons.\",\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"Differentiate works by the same author by adding lowercase letters after 'n.d.', and ensure proper punctuation with periods.\",\n",
" 'Error Text': 'We will assume that they are proximity normally distributed.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 402,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'In rare cases, the author and date might both appear in the narrative. In this case, do not use parentheses.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The APA guidelines emphasize the importance of clarity and accuracy in writing. The word 'proximity' in the sentence does not convey the intended meaning of 'approximately,' which is essential for clear communication in scientific writing. Therefore, it should be corrected to 'approximately' to ensure the sentence accurately reflects the intended meaning.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'We will assume that they are approximately normally distributed.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 2',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 12,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'a straight-line through',\n",
" 'reference_page': 243,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"According to the APA Publication Manual, compound adjectives should be hyphenated only when they precede the noun they modify. In the phrase 'a straight-line through,' 'straight line' is not preceding a noun it modifies and thus should not be hyphenated.\",\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The word 'signification' is a typographical error and should be corrected to 'significant.' Accurate terminology is essential for clear communication as per APA guidelines.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'significant relationship'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 2',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 33,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'dependant variable',\n",
" 'reference_page': 'Not provided in the current list',\n",
" 'reference_page_content': \"Spelling should adhere to standard American English conventions. The word 'dependant' should be spelled 'dependent' when used in the context of something that relies on something else.\",\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"According to APA style, ensure correct spelling and usage of terms. 'Dependant' is a British English spelling for a noun meaning someone who relies on someone else, while 'dependent' is the correct American English spelling for both the noun and adjective.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'dependent variable'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 3',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Linear regression is general method for estimating association...',\n",
" 'reference_page': 212,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'At the detail level, check sentences for correct grammar and usage (see Sections 4.12–4.24). Also check for spelling and grammar errors using the automatic spell-check and grammar-check functions of your word-processing program. Although an electronic spell-check cannot take the place of careful proofreading (because words spelled correctly may be used incorrectly), it will lessen the chances that typographical errors make their way into the published article or the submitted assignment.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The error involves a missing article 'a' before 'general method'. In APA 7th Edition, Section 4.23 emphasizes the importance of using articles appropriately to ensure clarity and precision in scholarly writing. Proper grammar and usage checks, as suggested, would help in identifying such errors.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'Linear regression is a general method for estimating association...'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 3',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'It is a prediction on one variable from another variable.',\n",
" 'reference_page': '462',\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Place the section label “References” in bold at the top of the page, centered.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The error involves the incorrect use of the preposition 'on' instead of 'of' when describing a relationship between variables. According to APA guidelines, using accurate prepositions is crucial for clarity in writing. The reference to section labels being centered and bold suggests attention to detail in formatting, akin to ensuring precise language use.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'It is a prediction of one variable from another variable.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 3',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 5,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Part4 - and then the regression findings using the template...',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The error identified pertains to the incorrect section heading format. According to the APA 7th Edition, section headings must be concise and appropriately formatted with correct punctuation. The reference to Section 6.7 discusses the usage of quotation marks, indicating that correct punctuation is crucial for clarity in headings and other textual elements.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Part 4: Then, the regression findings using the template...'},\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'As with all aspects of paper preparation, ensure that there are no ambiguities that could lead to errors in final production, particularly with mathematical and statistical symbols, unusual characters, and complex alignments (e.g., subscripts, superscripts). Avoid misunderstandings and corrections by preparing mathematical copy carefully.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The APA guidelines require that all superscripts in tables must be defined to ensure clarity. This prevents any ambiguity in interpreting the data presented.',\n",
" 'correction': \"Weightb (where 'b' indicates the specific condition under which the weight was measured, to be defined in the table note).\"},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 4',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 1,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'A simple linear regession was calculated to predict MPG based on weight of the vehicle.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 112,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Correct spelling is important for professionalism and clarity.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition, correct spelling is crucial in maintaining professionalism and clarity in writing. It ensures the document is easily understood and maintains a high standard of presentation.',\n",
" 'correction': 'A simple linear regression was calculated to predict MPG based on the weight of the vehicle.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 4',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Partcipants’ predicted weight is equal to _35.882+.004_(MPG) weight when MPG is measured in lbs.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 289,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'APA Style for presenting statistical and mathematical copy reflects (a) the standards of content and form agreed on in the field and (b) the requirements of clear communication. The Publication Manual addresses standards for presentation only; it does not provide guidance on how to choose statistics, conduct analyses, or interpret results. Consult a statistics reference work or a statistician for help if needed.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"The word 'Partcipants’' is misspelled and should be corrected to 'Participants’' to ensure clarity and readability. Additionally, the mathematical expression should be clear and follow the APA Style guidelines for presenting statistical and mathematical copy.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'Participants’ predicted weight is equal to 35.882 + 0.004(MPG) weight when MPG is measured in lbs.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 4',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 3,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Weight decreased -.004 for each gallon of MPG.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 89,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'The format for reporting statistics should be clear and in accordance with APA style. The negative sign should be adjacent to the numeral without a space.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'In APA style, the negative sign should be directly next to the numeral it modifies without any space. This ensures clarity and conformity with statistical reporting standards.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Weight decreased -0.004 for each gallon of MPG.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 4',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': 4,\n",
" 'Error Text': 'We have been asked to investigate the degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 24,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'The Publication Manual refers to numerous products and services that are not affiliated with the American Psychological Association but that our readers may encounter or use during the process of research, writing, and publication.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The use of first-person pronouns is discouraged in APA style to maintain objectivity and formality. Sentences should be rephrased to avoid first-person pronouns, which can be achieved by using passive voice or rephrasing the sentence altogether.',\n",
" 'correction': 'The degree to which vehicle weight predicts miles per gallon was investigated.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 5',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '3',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Sage Publications, Inc.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 243,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'In this chapter, we provide essential style guidelines for scholarly writing, including punctuation, spelling, capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, statistical and mathematical copy, and lists. These guidelines often overlap with those for general good writing practices. However, we omit general grammar rules explained in widely available writing manuals and examples of grammar or usage with little relevance to manuscripts submitted to journals that use APA Style. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, the Publication Manual takes precedence for APA Style papers or publications.',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': \"When citing publishers in APA Style, words such as 'Publishers', 'Co.', 'Inc.', etc., should be omitted unless they are part of the official title. This ensures clarity and adherence to APA citation standards.\",\n",
" 'correction': 'Sage'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 5',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '5',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Variables and Hypotheses. (n.d.). Variables and hypotheses [PDF]',\n",
" 'reference_page': 443,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'For works that are part of a greater whole (e.g., journal articles, edited book chapters), do not italicize the title or use quotation marks, and capitalize it using sentence case (see Section 6.17).',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'The title in the reference list should be in sentence case and should not be italicized or enclosed in brackets. This aligns with APA guidelines stating that titles of works that are part of a greater whole should use sentence case and not be italicized.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Variables and hypotheses. (n.d.). Variables and hypotheses.'},\n",
" {'Doc Page': 'Image 5',\n",
" 'Line Number(s)': '7',\n",
" 'Error Text': 'Blackboard. (n.d.). Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.',\n",
" 'reference_page': 266,\n",
" 'reference_page_content': 'Sentence Case. In sentence case, lowercase most words in the title or heading. Capitalize only the following words: titles of articles, books, reports, webpages, and other works in reference list entries, even if title case was used in the original work (see also Section 9.19)',\n",
" 'correction_explanation': 'According to the APA 7th Edition Manual, section 9.19, titles should be formatted in sentence case. This means that you should lowercase most words in the title, capitalizing only the first word of the title and subtitle, as well as any proper nouns and acronyms.',\n",
" 'correction': 'Blackboard. (n.d.). Appendix A: Guides for selecting appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.'}]"
